Abstract

Road infrastructure quality is crucial, particularly in rural areas where most low-income households reside. This study assesses the Rural Access Index (RAI), aligned with SDG indicator 9.1.1, at the district level in Indonesia to evaluate the implementation of the Nawacita programme from 2014 to 2020. The RAI measures the proportion of rural residents living within 2 kilometers of an all-season road. Using road network maps, urban–rural boundary data, three road condition datasets, and WorldPop population data, the study finds that rural access improved and inequality in road access declined, especially in prioritized regions like Papua and West Papua. It also identifies a strong trend of regional convergence, suggesting that disparities between districts have narrowed over time. These results reflect the programme’s relative success in expanding rural infrastructure. To sustain this progress, the study recommends designating key road projects as national strategic infrastructure, enhancing tax collection to increase funding capacity, and encouraging private sector investment through supportive policies. Such efforts are essential to ensure long-term, equitable development of rural road access across Indonesia.